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Stratovolcano

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Mount Rainier, a 4,392 m (14,411 ft) stratovolcano, the highest point in the US state of Washington
Exposed internal structure of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic rock in the eroded Broken Top stratovolcano in Oregon

A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra.[1] Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and explosive eruptions.[2] Some have collapsed summit craters called calderas.[3] The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite), with lesser amounts of less viscous mafic magma.[4] Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but can travel as far as 8 km (5 mi).[5]

The term composite volcano is used because the strata are usually mixed and uneven instead of neat layers.[6] They are among the most common types of volcanoes, with 700 currently identified.[7] They are typically found in subduction zones and large volcanically active regions. Two examples of stratovolcanoes famous for catastrophic eruptions are Krakatoa in Indonesia, which erupted in 1883 claiming 36,000 lives.[8] Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupted in 79 A.D and killed an estimated 2,000 people.[9] In modern times, Mount St. Helens (March 27, 1980) in Washington State, US, and Mount Pinatubo (June 15, 1991) in the Philippines have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.[7]

Creation

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See also: Igneous rock
Cross-section of subduction zone and associated stratovolcanoes

Stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones, forming chains and clusters along plate tectonic boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust (continental arc volcanism, e.g. Cascade Range, Andes, Campania) or another oceanic plate (island arc volcanism, e.g. Japan, Philippines, Aleutian Islands). The magma forming stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab.[10] The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths.[11] The water freed from the rock lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting, rises (due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock), and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber within the crust below the stratovolcano.[10]

The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include:[12][13]

  • Magma differentiation, in which the lightest, most silica-rich magma and volatiles such as water, halogens, and sulfur dioxide accumulate in the uppermost part of the magma chamber. This can dramatically increase pressures.[14]
  • Fractional crystallization of the magma. When anhydrous minerals such as feldspar crystallize out of the magma, this concentrates volatiles in the remaining liquid, which can lead to second boiling that causes a gas phase (carbon dioxide or water) to separate from the liquid magma and raise magma chamber pressures.[15]
  • Injection of fresh magma into the magma chamber, which mixes and heats the cooler magma already present. This could force volatiles out of solution and lower the density of the cooler magma, both of which increase pressure. There is considerable evidence for magma mixing just before many eruptions, including magnesium-rich olivine crystals in freshly erupted silicic lava that show no reaction rim. This is possible only if the lava erupted immediately after mixing since olivine rapidly reacts with silicic magma to form a rim of pyroxene.[16]
  • Progressive melting of the surrounding country rock.[17]

These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as sector collapse, earthquakes, or interactions with groundwater. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can trigger eruption only of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.[17]

Hazards

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Mount Etna on the island of Sicily, in southern Italy
Mount Fuji on Honshu (top) and Mount Unzen on Kyushu (bottom), two of Japan's stratovolcanoes

In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations.[18] Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force because the magma is too viscous to allow easy escape of volcanic gases.[19] As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.[18]

Since 1600 CE, nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by pyroclastic flows and lahars, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes.[18] Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash, fragmented lava, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over 150 km/h (90 mph).[18] Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean.[18] During March and April 1982, El Chichón in the State of Chiapas in southeastern Mexico, erupted 3 times, causing the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history and killied more than 2,000 people in pyroclastic flows.[18]

Two Decade Volcanoes that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On 15 June, Mount Pinatubo erupted and caused an ash cloud to shoot 40 km (25 mi) into the air. It produced large pyroclastic surges and lahar floods that caused a lot of damage to the surrounding area.[18] Pinatubo, located in Central Luzon just 90 km (56 mi) west-northwest of Manila, had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption. This eruption was one of the 2nd largest in the 20th century.[20] It produced a large volcanic cloud that affected global temperatures, lowering them in areas as much as .5 °C.[20] The volcanic cloud consisted of 22 million tons of SO2 which combined with water droplets to create sulfuric acid.[18] In 1991 Japan's Unzen Volcano also erupted, after 200 years of inactivity. It's located on the island of Kyushu about 40 km (25 mi) east of Nagasaki.[18] Beginning in June, a newly formed lava dome repeatedly collapsed. This generated ash flows that flowed down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph).[18] Unzen was the worst volcanic disasters in Japan's history, once killing more than 15,000 people in 1792.[21]

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD is the most famous example of a hazardous stratovolcano eruption. It completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with thick deposits of pyroclastic surges and pumice ranging from 6–7 meters deep. Pompeii had 10,000-20,000 inhabitants at the time of eruption.[22] Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world's volcanoes, due to its capacity for powerful explosive eruptions coupled with the high population density of the surrounding Metropolitan Naples area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).[23]

Ash

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Main article: Volcanic ash
Snow-like blanket of Mount Pinatubo's ashfall deposits in a parking lot on Clark Air Base (15 June 1991)

In addition to potentially affecting the climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions pose a serious hazard to aviation.[18] Volcanic clouds consist of ash which is made of silt or sand sized pieces of rock, mineral, volcanic glass. Ash grains are jagged, abrasive, and don't dissolve in water.[24] For example, during the 1982 eruption of Galunggung in Java, British Airways Flight 9 flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage.[25] Although no crashes have happened due to ash, more than 60 mostly commercial aircrafts, have been damaged. Some of these incidents resulted in emergency landings.[26] As of 1999, no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash.[18] Ashfalls are a threat to health when inhaled and ash is also a threat to property. A square yard of 4 inch thick ash layer can weigh 120-200 pounds and can get twice as heavy when wet. Wet ash also poses a risk to electronics due to its conductive nature.[24] Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an eruptive column, or laterally due to the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions. These clouds are known as pyroclastic surges and in addition to ash, they contain hot lava, pumice, rock, and volcanic gas. Pyroclastic surges flow at speeds over 50 mph and are at temperatures between 200 °C - 700 °C. These surges can cause major damage to property and people in their path.[27]

Lava

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Main article: Lava
Mayon Volcano in Philippines extruding lava flows during its eruption on 29 December 2009

Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans or animals because the highly viscous lava moves slowly enough for everyone to evacuate. Most deaths attributed to lava are due to related causes such as explosions and asphyxiation from toxic gas.[28] Lava flows can bury homes and farms in thick volcanic rock which greatly reduces property value.[28] However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava. Nyiragongo, near Lake Kivu in central Africa, is very dangerous because its magma has an unusually low silica content, making it much less viscous than oyther stratovolcanoes. Low viscosity lava can generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a volcanic plug. Volcanic plugs can trap gas and create pressure in the magma chamber, resulting in violent eruptions.[29] Lava is typically between 700 and 1,200 °C (1,300-2,200 °F).[30]

Volcanic bombs

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Main article: Volcanic bomb

Volcanic bombs are masses of unconsolidated rock and lava that are ejected during an eruption. Volcanic bombs are classified as larger than 64mm (2.5 inches). Anything below 64mm is classified as a volcanic block.[31] When erupted Bombs are still molten and partially cool and solidify on their decent. They can form ribbon or oval shapes that can also flatten on impact with the ground.[32] Volcanic Bombs are associated with Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions and basaltic lava. Ejection velocities ranging from 200 to 400 m/s have been recorded causing volcanic bombs to be destructive.[31]

Lahar

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Main article: Lahar

Lahars (from a Javanese term for volcanic mudflows) are a mixture of volcanic debris and water. Lahars can result from heavy rainfall during or before the eruption or interactiON with ice and snow. Meltwater mixes with volcanic debris causing a fast moving mudflow. Lahars are typically about 60% sediment and 40% water.[33] Depending on the abundance of volcanic debris the lahar can be fluid or thick like concrete.[34] Lahars have the strength and speed to flatten structures and cause great bodily harm, gaining speeds up to dozens of kilometers per hour.[33] In the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, Pyroclastic surges melted snow and ice atop the 5,321 m (17,457 ft) high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar killed 25,000 people and flooded the city of Armero and nearby settlements.[34]

Volcanic Gas

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Main article: Volcanic gas

As a volcano forms, several different gases mix with magma in the volcanic chamber. During an eruption the gases are then released into the atmosphere which can lead to toxic human exposure. The most abundant of these gases is H2O (water) followed by CO2 (carbon dioxide), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), H2S (hydrogen sulfide), and HF (hydrogen fluoride).[35] If at concentrations of more than 3% in the air, when breathed in CO2 can cause dizziness and difficulty breathing. At more than 15% concentration CO2 causes death. CO2 can settle into depressions in the land, leading to deadly, odorless pockets of gas.[36] SO2 classified as a respiratory, skin, and eye irritant if come into contact with. It is known for its pungent egg smell and role in ozone depletion and has the potential to cause acid rain downwind of an eruption.[36] H2S has an even stronger odor than SO2 as well as being even more toxic. Exposure for less than an hour at concentrations of over 500ppm causes death.[36] HF and similar species can coat ash particles and once deposited can poison soil and water.[36] Gases are also emitted during volcanic degassing, which is a passive release of gas during periods of dormancy.[36]

Effects on climate and atmosphere

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Paluweh eruption as seen from space

As per the above examples, while the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage in the historic past, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler-than-usual temperatures were recorded worldwide, with brilliant sunsets and intense sunrises attributed to the particulates; this eruption lofted particles high into the stratosphere. The aerosols that formed from the sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other gases dispersed around the world. The SO2 mass in this cloud—about 22 million tons—combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) formed droplets of sulfuric acid, blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the troposphere and ground. The cooling in some regions is thought to have been as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).[18] An eruption the size of Mount Pinatubo tends to affect the weather for a few years; the material injected into the stratosphere gradually drops into the troposphere, where it is washed away by rain and cloud precipitation.[citation needed]

A similar but extraordinarily more powerful phenomenon occurred in the cataclysmic April 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora on Sumbawa island in Indonesia. The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3.5 °C (6.3 °F).[18] In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer. In parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, 1816 was known as the "Year Without a Summer", which caused a considerable agricultural crisis and a brief but bitter famine, which generated a series of distresses across much of the affected continents.[citation needed]

List

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Main article: List of stratovolcanoes

See also

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  • Cinder cone – Steep hill of pyroclastic fragments around a volcanic vent
  • Mountain formation – Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains
  • Orogeny – The formation of mountain ranges
  • Pyroclastic shield – Shield volcano formed mostly of pyroclastic and highly explosive eruptions

References

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  1. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from Principal Types of Volcanoes. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
  2. ^ "Types of volcano". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  3. ^ "Volcanoes: Principal Types of Volcanoes". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  4. ^ Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R., eds. (2013). Teide Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano. Active Volcanoes of the World. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-642-25892-3.
  5. ^ "Lava flows destroy everything in their path | U.S. Geological Survey". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  6. ^ "Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes) (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  7. ^ a b "Stratovolcano | Shape, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 September 2024. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  8. ^ "On This Day: Historic Krakatau Eruption of 1883". National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). 25 August 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  9. ^ "Vesuvius Erupts". American Museum of Natural History.
  10. ^ a b Schmincke 2003, pp. 113–126.
  11. ^ Schmidt, A.; Rüpke, L. H.; Morgan, J. P.; Hort, M. (2001). "How Large a Feedback Effect Does Slab Dewatering Have on Itself ?". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 2001: T41C–0871. Bibcode:2001AGUFM.T41C0871S.
  12. ^ Schmincke 2003, pp. 51–56.
  13. ^ Cañón-Tapia, Edgardo (February 2014). "Volcanic eruption triggers: A hierarchical classification". Earth-Science Reviews. 129: 100–119. Bibcode:2014ESRv..129..100C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.011.
  14. ^ Schmincke 2003, p. 52.
  15. ^ Wech, Aaron G.; Thelen, Weston A.; Thomas, Amanda M. (15 May 2020). "Deep long-period earthquakes generated by second boiling beneath Mauna Kea volcano". Science. 368 (6492): 775–779. Bibcode:2020Sci...368..775W. doi:10.1126/science.aba4798. PMID 32409477. S2CID 218648557.
  16. ^ Schmincke 2003, p. 54.
  17. ^ a b Cañón-Tapia 2014.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. Plate tectonics and people. United States Geological Survey.
  19. ^ "Types of volcano". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  20. ^ a b "The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, Fact Sheet 113-97". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  21. ^ "Mount Unzen eruption of 1792 | Volcanic Disaster, Deceit & Death | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  22. ^ "Pompeii | History, Volcano, Map, Population, Ruins, & Facts | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 September 2024. Retrieved 25 September 2024.
  23. ^ Rolandi, G. (January 2010). "Volcanic hazard at Vesuvius: An analysis for the revision of the current emergency plan". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 189 (3–4): 347–362. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.007.
  24. ^ a b "Ash Fall—A "Hard Rain" of Abrasive Particles | USGS Volcano Fact Sheet". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  25. ^ "Global Volcanism Program | Report on Galunggung (Indonesia) — June 1982". Global Volcanism Program. doi:10.5479/si.gvp.sean198206-263140. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
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  27. ^ "Pyroclastic flows move fast and destroy everything in their path | U.S. Geological Survey". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  28. ^ a b "Lava flows destroy everything in their path". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  29. ^ "Eruption styles". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  30. ^ "Lava | Types, Composition, Temperature, & Facts | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 September 2024. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  31. ^ a b "Volcanic Bombs: Overview". sandatlas.org. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  32. ^ "Bomb | Explosive Eruption, Pyroclastic Flow, Ash Cloud | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  33. ^ a b "Volcanic hazards". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
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  35. ^ "Volcanic hazards". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  36. ^ a b c d e "Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure | U.S. Geological Survey". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
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